Saudi Arabia, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is the largest country in the Middle East and the birthplace of Islam. It holds a significant position both regionally and globally due to its vast oil reserves, religious significance as the custodian of Islam’s two holiest cities, and its growing influence in geopolitics.
Geography of Saudi Arabia
Location and Borders
Saudi Arabia is located in the Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East, sharing borders with eight countries: Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to the east, Oman to the southeast, and Yemen to the south. It also has coastlines along the Red Sea to the west and the Persian Gulf to the east.
With an area of approximately 2.15 million square kilometers (830,000 square miles), Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the Middle East and the 12th largest country in the world.
Major Regions and Geographic Features
Saudi Arabia is a land of vast deserts, mountains, and coastal plains. The country is typically divided into five main geographic regions:
- Western Region (Hejaz) – This region is home to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and includes the Red Sea coastal plains and the Hijaz Mountains.
- Central Region (Najd) – A large plateau in the center of the country, Najd is home to the capital, Riyadh, and is characterized by arid deserts and scrublands.
- Eastern Region (Al-Ahsa) – Located along the Persian Gulf, this region is rich in oil fields and is the economic heart of the Saudi oil industry. The cities of Dammam, Dhahran, and Al Khobar are important hubs in this region.
- Southern Region (Asir) – Known for its mountainous terrain and relatively cooler climate, Asir includes the city of Abha and has higher rainfall compared to other regions.
- Northern Region – Sparsely populated, this region includes parts of the Nafud Desert and borders Jordan and Iraq.
Climate
Saudi Arabia experiences an arid desert climate with extremely hot summers and mild winters. The country has limited rainfall, and much of its territory is desert. However, regional variations exist:
- Summer (June to September) – Temperatures in the central and eastern deserts can soar above 50°C (122°F), while coastal regions like Jeddah experience high humidity.
- Winter (December to February) – The winter months are cooler, especially in the central highlands and the northern region, where temperatures can drop to 0°C (32°F).
- Rainfall – Rainfall is minimal, but the Asir region in the southwest receives relatively more rainfall due to its higher elevation, particularly during the monsoon season.
Population and Demographics
Population Size and Distribution
Saudi Arabia has a population of approximately 35 million people, with a significant portion (around one-third) consisting of foreign expatriates. Most of the population is concentrated in major cities such as Riyadh, Jeddah, Mecca, and Dammam, with vast stretches of desert and rural areas sparsely populated.
Ethnic Composition
The majority of Saudi citizens are ethnic Arabs, with smaller communities of ethnic minorities, such as Afro-Saudis, who are descendants of Africans brought to the region during the slave trade, and other minority groups. The large expatriate population consists mainly of workers from South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh), Southeast Asia (the Philippines, Indonesia), and Middle Eastern countries (Egypt, Syria, Lebanon).
Language
The official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic, specifically Modern Standard Arabic, which is used in formal settings, government, and education. The most commonly spoken dialect is Saudi Arabic, with regional variations. English is widely understood and used in business, government, and among expatriates.
Religion
Saudi Arabia is a Muslim-majority country, and Islam plays a central role in the daily lives of its citizens. The country adheres to Sunni Islam, specifically following the Hanbali school of jurisprudence and the teachings of Wahhabism, a conservative Islamic doctrine. Shia Muslims, who primarily live in the Eastern Province, make up a small percentage of the population.
As the birthplace of Islam, Saudi Arabia is home to Islam’s two holiest cities:
- Mecca – The city where the Prophet Muhammad was born and the destination for the Hajj pilgrimage.
- Medina – The city where the Prophet Muhammad is buried.
Non-Muslims are not permitted to openly practice their religions in the country, and public observance of non-Islamic religions is prohibited.
History of Saudi Arabia
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Before the advent of Islam, the Arabian Peninsula was home to various nomadic tribes and small kingdoms. Trade routes crisscrossed the desert, linking the Arabian Peninsula with the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Africa. The city of Mecca was already an important religious and trading center, housing the Kaaba, a sacred shrine.
The Rise of Islam
In the early 7th century, Prophet Muhammad received his first revelation in Mecca, marking the birth of Islam. Over the next few years, Islam rapidly spread across the Arabian Peninsula, and by 630 CE, Muhammad had unified the Arabian tribes under a single Islamic state. After Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, the Rashidun Caliphate and subsequent Islamic empires governed the region, shaping the course of Islamic civilization.
The House of Saud and the Birth of Modern Saudi Arabia
The modern history of Saudi Arabia is closely tied to the rise of the House of Saud, a powerful family that established its influence in the central region of Najd. The founder of the first Saudi state, Muhammad ibn Saud, allied with the Islamic reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the 18th century, laying the foundations for the modern Saudi state through the spread of Wahhabism.
However, the Saudi state faced numerous challenges and was dissolved twice before being re-established in the early 20th century by Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. He embarked on a series of military campaigns, unifying the Arabian Peninsula under his rule. In 1932, Abdulaziz declared the formation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, with himself as its first king.
Oil Discovery and Economic Transformation
The discovery of vast oil reserves in 1938 in the Eastern Province fundamentally transformed Saudi Arabia’s economy and global importance. With the establishment of Saudi Aramco (originally a joint venture with American companies), the country became one of the world’s leading oil producers and exporters, earning enormous wealth and political influence.
Oil revenue enabled the modernization of Saudi Arabia’s infrastructure, healthcare, education, and social services, and the kingdom became a key player in the global energy market.
Recent History and Vision 2030
In the 21st century, Saudi Arabia faces new challenges, including the need to diversify its economy, address high youth unemployment, and reduce its dependence on oil. In response, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (MBS) introduced Vision 2030, an ambitious plan to reform and diversify the economy by focusing on sectors such as tourism, entertainment, and technology.
Vision 2030 also includes social reforms, such as allowing women to drive (granted in 2018) and expanding women’s participation in the workforce, while aiming to balance modernity with Islamic traditions.
Government and Politics
Absolute Monarchy
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, where the king holds significant executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The current king (as of 2024) is King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, who ascended to the throne in 2015. The monarchy is hereditary, passing within the Al Saud family.
The king serves as the head of state, head of government, and supreme commander of the military. The king also appoints ministers and governs by royal decree, with no elections or political parties permitted.
The Role of the Crown Prince
The Crown Prince is the designated heir to the throne and holds considerable influence in the government. Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (MBS), King Salman’s son, has become the de facto ruler in many areas, spearheading Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 reforms and overseeing foreign policy, defense, and economic strategies.
Shura Council and Legal System
Saudi Arabia has a consultative body called the Shura Council, composed of 150 members appointed by the king. While the Shura Council does not have legislative authority, it advises the king on policy matters and reviews laws and regulations.
The legal system in Saudi Arabia is based on Sharia law (Islamic law), primarily following the Hanbali school of Sunni jurisprudence. The country’s judiciary interprets laws in accordance with Sharia, covering civil, criminal, and family matters.
Human Rights and Governance
Saudi Arabia has faced international criticism for its human rights record, particularly regarding freedom of expression, women’s rights, and the treatment of political dissidents. The country enforces strict social norms, with the mutawa (religious police) traditionally playing a significant role in regulating public behavior. However, under MBS, some of these restrictions have been loosened, and the influence of the religious police has diminished.
Women’s rights have improved, with reforms allowing women to drive, attend sports events, and travel without a male guardian’s permission. However, gender segregation and male guardianship laws still limit women’s freedoms in many aspects of life.
Economy of Saudi Arabia
Overview
Saudi Arabia has one of the largest economies in the Middle East and the 19th largest economy in the world by GDP. The kingdom’s economy is heavily reliant on oil, which accounts for around 50% of GDP, 70% of government revenue, and 90% of exports. Saudi Arabia is a founding member of OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) and plays a key role in influencing global oil prices.
Vision 2030 and Economic Diversification
Recognizing the need to reduce its dependence on oil, Saudi Arabia launched Vision 2030 in 2016. This strategic plan aims to diversify the economy by focusing on sectors such as:
- Tourism – Expanding the tourism sector by developing cultural, historical, and natural sites, such as the ancient city of Al-Ula and the futuristic city project NEOM.
- Entertainment – Building a thriving entertainment industry, including the opening of cinemas, music festivals, and sports events.
- Technology and Innovation – Investing in tech startups, smart cities, and digital infrastructure.
- Renewable Energy – Expanding into renewable energy sources like solar and wind to meet future energy demands and reduce carbon emissions.
The Public Investment Fund (PIF), Saudi Arabia’s sovereign wealth fund, plays a key role in funding these initiatives and investing in global companies and projects.
Key Economic Sectors
Oil and Gas
The oil sector remains the backbone of Saudi Arabia’s economy. Saudi Aramco, the state-owned oil company, is the largest and most valuable company in the world, producing about 10 million barrels per day. Aramco’s 2019 initial public offering (IPO) was one of the largest in history, further cementing its global significance.
Non-Oil Sectors
As part of its diversification efforts, Saudi Arabia is developing other key sectors:
- Construction and Infrastructure – Large-scale infrastructure projects like NEOM, Red Sea Project, and King Abdullah Economic City are part of the kingdom’s effort to modernize and create new jobs.
- Mining – Saudi Arabia has vast mineral resources, including phosphate, gold, and bauxite. The mining sector is being expanded to reduce reliance on oil.
- Agriculture – Despite its arid environment, Saudi Arabia has invested in modern agricultural techniques, particularly in producing wheat, dates, and dairy products.
Banking and Finance
Saudi Arabia’s financial sector is highly developed, with Riyadh emerging as a financial hub for the Middle East. The kingdom’s banking system is well-regulated, and the government is working to expand its Islamic finance sector, including Sharia-compliant banking and financial products.
Culture of Saudi Arabia
Islamic Traditions and Social Norms
Saudi culture is deeply rooted in Islam, which shapes the country’s traditions, social norms, and daily life. The practice of Islam in Saudi Arabia follows a conservative interpretation, with religious observances such as daily prayers, Ramadan fasting, and Hajj pilgrimage being central to society.
Friday is the Islamic holy day, and businesses typically close for the Jumu’ah prayer in the afternoon. Religious festivals like Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are widely celebrated, often involving family gatherings, charity, and feasts.
Social Structure and Tribal Influence
Saudi Arabian society is traditionally tribal, and many Saudi citizens identify with a particular tribe or extended family. Tribes play a significant role in politics, business, and social relations, with tribal loyalty often influencing alliances and leadership within the kingdom.
Traditional Dress and Customs
Saudi men typically wear the thobe or dishdasha, a long white robe, along with the ghutra (a headscarf) and agal (a black cord that holds the headscarf in place). Women traditionally wear the abaya, a black cloak, and in many cases, cover their heads with a hijab or face with a niqab. However, dress codes have become more relaxed in recent years, particularly in urban areas.
Hospitality is a core element of Saudi culture, with tea and Arabic coffee (gahwa) commonly offered to guests as a sign of respect and generosity. Dates are often served alongside drinks as a traditional snack.
Art, Music, and Entertainment
For many years, Saudi Arabia enforced strict limitations on public entertainment, with cinemas, concerts, and other forms of media being banned or restricted. However, under Vision 2030, the kingdom has opened up its entertainment sector. Cinemas were reintroduced in 2018, and Saudi Arabia now hosts music concerts, art exhibitions, and sporting events, including Formula E races and WWE wrestling.
Saudi music is traditionally based on Bedouin poetry and chanting, with instruments such as the oud and rebab playing a central role in folk music. In modern times, the kingdom has embraced pop music, and Saudi musicians have gained prominence in regional music scenes.
Cuisine
Saudi Arabian cuisine reflects the country’s Bedouin heritage and Islamic traditions. Meals typically revolve around rice, lamb, chicken, and a variety of spices. Kabsa is the national dish, consisting of spiced rice served with meat and vegetables. Mutabbaq (stuffed flatbread), hummus, falafel, and shawarma are also popular dishes.
During the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims break their fast at iftar, a meal often starting with dates and water, followed by more substantial dishes. Special sweets like baklava and kunafa are commonly enjoyed during festivals and celebrations.